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I'll post here (any other members can as well) grammar explanations that can be helpful as a reminder or first exposure.

The following editorial is from an author on a different website known as *Vivian gives thanks* and she provides a solid explanation of the usage of "Pronouns other than Personal Pronouns" -

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. Like all pronouns, they replace nouns. Demonstrative pronouns are used to replace specific people or things that have been previously mentioned (or are understood from context).

A demonstrative pronoun tells us whether it is replacing something singular or plural and whether that thing(s) is close by or farther away.

This and That Represent Singular Nouns -

         This represents something close by. For example: This is very smelly.

         That represents something farther away. For example:You can smell that from here.

These and Those Represent Plural Nouns -

         These represents something close by. For example: These smell rotten.

         Those represents something farther away. For example: Do not paint those.

The Difference between Demonstrative Pronouns and Demonstrative Adjectives -

The demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those (i.e., the same words as the demonstrative pronouns). However, demonstrative adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. They cannot stand alone to play the role of a noun. For example:
This soup is very smelly.
You smell that factory from here.
These apples smell rotten.
Do not paint those fences.

Demonstrative adjectives modify nouns (shown in bold above). For clarity in writing, unless used in dialogue, authors need to avoid using demonstrative pronouns in text/narrative. We always want our readers to understand what we mean.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are words such as each, someone, somebody, no one, everyone, all, etc. Be sure the pronoun which refers to an indefinite pronoun is the right case and person. Each, someone, somebody, no one, everyone, and everything are singular and require a singular pronoun. Check and be sure whether an indefinite pronoun is singular or plural..

Incorrect: Everyone keeps their own books.            Correct: Everyone keeps his (or her) own books. Or Correct: All the students keep their own books.

Clear pronoun reference:

Clear pronoun reference is a must, which means readers can easily recognize the antecedent for each personal pronoun. An antecedent is the noun or indefinite pronoun to which the pronoun refers. A pronoun should be close to its antecedent.

“It” should not begin a sentence unless its antecedent is near the end of the preceding sentence or unless “it” refers to the preceding thought, clearly referenced.

Be careful that personal pronouns are not confusing, that several males aren’t in the sentence or paragraph so that the reader doesn’t know to which noun the pronouns he, his, him refer.

         Incorrect: The two men ran toward the burning car. The flames trapped James. He couldn’t find a way to open any of the doors. The fire sheared his eyebrows. It couldn’t be real.
         Correct: The two men ran toward the burning car where flames trapped James. The two nor James could find a way to open any of the doors. The fire sheared James’ eyebrows. As the heat intensified, the man inside the car couldn’t believe he wouldn’t escape.

I've decided it would be beneficial to post the material from my online comma course I took a while ago. I'd love to cite the instructor's name but will have to settle for her handle name "Winnie". All credit goes to her and this material which she put together for class purposes. I'll throw in, from time to time, my own commentary, if I think it will help.

Now, each comma rule is not a secret and you can easily find them on various grammar sites by poking around. It's just nice to have them all in one place and her rules are fairly easy to follow, so I hope it will be a helpful tool for you.

Ultimately, when you arrive at the point to publish your work, you will normally hire a proofreader to find all the missing or incorrectly placed commas for you. But the more you can do on your own will give more time for your proofreader to spend on polishing other things within your work IMO.

It's an extensive listing so I'll be posting the rules in pieces according to the rule number. So here is the first rule -

Rule #1:    Independent Clauses Joined by Coordinating Conjunctions
Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by Coordinating Conjunctions.

Independent Clauses can stand alone as a separate and complete sentence. When a Coordinating Conjunction joins these independent clauses, a comma is used. It may help you remember the seven Coordinating Conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than four letters and that the first letter of each spells out the acronym FANBOYS. 
For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So. These are the seven Coordinating Conjunctions.
The comma should always be placed before the coordinating conjunction.
Only when a Non-Essential Phrase immediately follows the coordinating conjunction do you need to use a comma after the conjunction.
*My additional comment* Non-essential phrase = non-restrictive phrase = parenthetical phrase. These are basically synonyms of each other and the easiest way to think of them is what you would normally place in parentheses for the reader to know as an aside comment. Here's an example - Jack hated flying (he always vomited on the flight) but he had no choice this time because it was too far to drive. Here is the same thing with commas used to set the phrase off instead of parentheses - Jack hated flying, he always vomited on the flight, but he had no choice this time because it was too far to drive. *Key point* If you are trying to figure out if you have a phrase that is non-essential read your line without the phrase in it. If the meaning is changed then the phrase is essential so don't set it off with commas. If there is no change to the overall meaning then it's non-essential and you should set it off with commas.

Here's the rest of Rule 1 which deals mostly with the exceptions to the rule also penned by course instructor "Winnie":

Examples of Independent Clauses Joined by Coordinating Conjunctions:

New Horizons Academy offers courses in writing techniques, and it hires only the best instructors.
In this sentence, we have two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. New Horizons Academy offers courses in writing techniques can stand alone as a separate sentence. It hires only the best instructors is also an independent clause because it, too, can stand alone as a separate sentence. These clauses are joined by a Coordinating Conjunction, so a comma is needed before and.

I hate to waste a single crumb of Mom's salmon patties, for they are expensive and time-consuming to make.
See that coordinating conjunction and underlined in this sentence? Well, no comma goes before it because what follows (time-consuming to make) is not an independent clause. This is called a phrase, and no comma should precede and.

The chili is delicious, and it is hot.

McGregor refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch the discount canned food.
When the coordinating conjunction nor is used to join two independent clauses, the second independent clause will always have inverted word order, and the verb will come before the subject, but it is still considered an independent clause.

McGregor loves having his head scratched, but I wouldn't touch his tail if I were you.

The chili is so thick you can eat it with a fork, or you can use a soup spoon.

McGregor terrorizes the poodle next door, yet he adores the old German shepherd across the street.

McGregor is finicky, so I have to add catnip to his lobster bisque.

We hoped that decorating the top of Cindy's cupcake with a dead grasshopper would freak her out, but, to our surprise, she just popped the whole thing in her mouth.
In this sentence, to our surprise is called a Non-Essential Phrase and should be surrounded by commas. That's why there is a comma before and after the coordinating conjunction but. You will learn more about Non-Essential Elements (Rule #5) further below in this Lesson.

Exception #1xa: Independent Clauses Joined by So That
There is an exception with the coordinating conjunction so:
You always put a comma before so when it joins two independent clauses UNLESS so is used in place of in order that. If the word that follows so, or the word that is implied after so, no comma should precede so.  When used together as a combined conjunction inferring in order that, so that becomes a Subordinating Conjunction, and no comma is used.
Let me repeat:
SO THAT IS A SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION (not a Coordinating Conjunction), AND NO COMMA IS USED!

Examples of Independent Clauses Joined by So That:

I have worked hard on the Comma Sense Lesson Pages so that my students may have every available source of information at their fingertips.
In this sentence, NO comma goes before the Coordinating Conjunction so because the word that follows it which makes the combination of so that a Subordinating Conjunction. Don't panic!    We are about to learn about Subordinating Conjunctions.

I have worked hard on the Comma Sense Lesson Pages so my students may have every available source of information at their fingertips.
In this sentence, NO comma goes before the Coordinating Conjunction so because the word that is implied which makes so [that] a Subordinating Conjunction.

I have worked hard on the Comma Sense Lesson Pages, so that is why this is the most complete and comprehensive comma course you will find.
Uh oh, what happened here? There's the coordinating conjunction so, and the word that follows it, so why is there a comma before so that here? Well... I'll tell you why. In this sentence, so that is not combined to form a subordinating conjunction, and it is not used in place of in order that here. In this sentence, so is used as a coordinating conjunction joining two separate independent clauses, so Rule #1 applies. In this sentence, the word that is used as the subject of the clause and not in combination with so. That is why this is the most complete and comprehensive comma course you will find is an independent clause. So don't think that just because so and that are next to each other, it is automatically an example of Exception #1xa and takes no comma.

Exception #1xb: Independent Clauses Joined by Subordinating Conjunctions
Do not use a comma when a Subordinating Conjunction joins independent clauses (usually). Be careful with Subordinating Conjunctions such as when, whenever, while, before, after, since, until, as, as soon as, as long as, as if, where, wherever, if, unless, provided, so that, in order that, once, because, even though, and many more. A subordinating conjunction is always followed by a clause.
Here is a link listing more Subordinating Conjunctions:
http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000377.htm
These are NOT Coordinating Conjunctions, so what we say about Coordinating Conjunctions' roles in a sentence and their punctuation placement does not apply to these words. That does not mean we NEVER use a comma before Subordinating Conjunctions that join independent clauses, but usually no comma would go before them.

Examples of Independent Clauses Joined by Subordinating Conjunctions:

I hate to waste a single crumb of Mom's salmon patties because they are expensive and time-consuming to make.

The bowl of chili is delicious since it is hot.

McGregor refuses to eat dry cat food unless it is mixed with tuna.

McGregor loves having his head scratched as long as you don't touch his tail.

The chili is so thick you can eat it with a fork if you want to.

McGregor terrorizes the poodle next door before he visits the old German shepherd across the street.

McGregor is finicky until I add catnip to his lobster bisque.

McGregor runs through the house, even though he is sixteen years old.
Wait! Why is that comma before the Subordinating Conjunction even though? 
Remember, I said Subordinating Conjunctions usually don't take a comma before them. The Subordinating Conjunction even though is one of a few exceptions to this rule, and a comma is needed before it.

You can see more about comma usage with Subordinating Conjunctions by going to this excellent site:
http://hkrauthamer.tripod.com/Comma_rules.html
I suggest that you keep this link handy. I use it constantly.

Exception #1xc: Short Independent Clauses Joined by Coordinating Conjunctions
    Under certain circumstances, the comma before the coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses may be left out. If the first clause is short (5 - 6 words), especially if the two clauses are very closely related, you don't need the comma.

Examples of Short Independent Clauses Joined by Coordinating Conjunctions:

Bob tossed his poetry book and I caught it.

Winnie tried to bathe Lucy but the cat clawed her way free.

Pat carries a chainsaw so I'd knock before entering her house!

Bob wears a cap for he must protect his hair from the wind.

Danny must hurry or he will get smacked again with Winnie's Ruler!

In each of these examples above, the first independent clause is short (five words or less), and the two clauses are closely related to each other. Therefore, you can use the comma if you prefer, but you also have the option of omitting it.

Exception #1xd:  Clauses and Phrases Joined by Coordinating Conjunctions
  If an independent clause and a non-independent clause (a phrase) are joined by a coordinating conjunction, no comma is needed before the conjunction.
A non-independent clause, also known as a phrase, cannot stand alone as a separate sentence.
 
Examples of Clauses and Phrases Joined by Coordinating Conjunctions:

New Horizons Academy offers courses in writing techniques and hires only the best instructors.
In this sentence, the second part of the sentence is not an independent clause. It has no subject. Hires only the best instructors cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It is a phrase. No comma is used before the Coordinating Conjunction and.

Lucy broke her leg and had the bone set, yet she walks normally.
Here, we have two independent clauses with a phrase in the middle. Had the bone set is a phrase. It can't stand alone as a separate sentence, so no comma goes before the Coordinating Conjunction and. But we need a comma before the Coordinating Conjunction yet because what follows (she walks normally) is an independent clause.

Danny taught eighth-grade English grammar for thirty years before he retired but doesn't miss it at all.
In this sentence, the second part of the sentence is not an independent clause. It has no subject. Doesn't miss it at all cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It is a phrase. No comma is used before the Coordinating Conjunction but.

Exception #1xe: Clauses and Phrases Joined by Coordinating Conjunctions Expressing Extreme Contrast
A comma IS used before the coordinating conjunction (usually only yet and but) joining a clause to a phrase when expressing extreme contrast.

Examples of Clauses and Phrases Joined by Coordinating Conjunctions Expressing Extreme Contrast:

This is an easy rule, but difficult to remember.
Here, the second part of the sentence is not an independent clause. Difficult to remember cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. However, a comma is needed before the Coordinating Conjunction but because it is being used to express the extreme contrast between easy and difficult.

The Comma Sense students are experienced writers, yet inexperienced comma users.
A comma is needed before the Coordinating Conjunction yet because, even though what follows the coordinating conjunction is a phrase, it is being used to express the extreme contrast between experienced and inexperienced. 

Don't be misled into thinking that all sentences containing the coordinating conjunctions but and yet automatically follow the Extreme Contrast Rule. They do not always express extreme contrast as is seen in that last example above for Exception #1xd.

More Examples of Rule #1 and Its Exceptions:

The volcano filled the sky with acrid smoke [1xd] but never erupted.
No comma goes before the Coordinating Conjunction because what follows is a phrase. Never erupted cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Notice this example does NOT express extreme contrast.

Bob is armed with jelly beans [1xd] and ready to defend himself.
No comma goes before the Coordinating Conjunction because what follows is a phrase.

Winnie is an amazing instructor who spends time with each student, [1] so all of you should make an A+ this term. 
This sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. You need a comma here.

Sue studies all the comma usage rules carefully [1xa] so that she will earn a good grade.
This is an exception to Rule #1. The two independent clauses are joined by so that which is a subordinating conjunction. No comma goes here.

Sue studies all the comma usage rules carefully, [1] so that is why she earns a good grade.
This is not an example of Exception 1xa. You need a comma here. In this example, so and that are not  combined to form a subordinating conjunction inferring in order that. So is the coordinating conjunction, and that is the subject of the verb is.

* George was brought in to maintain order in the class, [1] yet he is distracted by his crush on Marcia.
This sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. You need a comma here.

The class is difficult [1xb] because there are many exceptions to the rules, [1] and Charlie has to think.   
This sentence contains three independent clauses. The first two clauses are joined by the Subordinating Conjunction because and the second and third clauses are joined by the Coordinating Conjunction and. No comma goes before the Subordinating Conjunction, and a comma is needed for the Coordinating Conjunction. See? Are you beginning to understand this stuff? 

This clause is short [1xc] so you don't need a comma.
The two independent clauses are joined by a Coordinating Conjunction, but the first clause is short, so the comma is optional.

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And the fun never stops! Here is the next rule:
Rule #2:    Introductory Adverbial Clauses
Use a comma after an Introductory Adverbial Clause. 

Introductory Adverbial Clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or set the stage for the main part of the sentence.  Introductory Adverbial Clauses start with Subordinate Conjunctions like the following:
after, although, as, because, before, every time, if, since, though, until, when, etc.
For a list of more Subordinating Conjunctions and their uses in Introductory Adverbial Clauses, go to:
http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000377.htm
http://ajaja.paradoxinc.org/Advanced/Wr … auses.html
They are called Adverbial Clauses because, even though they don't start with an Adverb, they modify the main part of the sentence, so the whole clause acts as an adverb. They are also known as Subordinate Clauses.

What makes it a dependent clause is the fact that it is dependent on the subordinate conjunction that starts it. But without the beginning word, it can stand alone as an independent clause, a separate and complete sentence on its own.
      Let me repeat that. Without the beginning word, it can stand alone as an independent clause, a separate and complete sentence on its own.  If the introduction to a sentence CANNOT stand on its own as a complete sentence, it is NOT an Introductory Adverbial Clause. It is an Introductory Phrase which we will study in the next lesson.

Examples of Introductory Adverbial Clauses:

If it is dark and cloudy today, Winnie and her vampire may go out for a picnic.
Notice, if you drop the subordinate conjunction if, which begins the clause, you have an independent clause which can stand on its own. It is dark and cloudy today is an independent clause.

* After Bob ate supper, he went to his desk and wrote a poem.

Since Pat wants to win the marathon, she walks ten miles a day.

Because he kept barking insistently, Winnie threw the ball for Buster.

Bob and Pat are going gopher hunting, but if they spot George, they must not shoot.
An Introductory Adverbial Clause does not necessarily begin a sentence. Remember, it introduces another independent clause, so it can appear in the middle of a sentence, and a comma should follow it. Here we have two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, so we need a comma before but. We also have an Introductory Adverbial Clause in the middle of the sentence. If they spot George  introduces the independent clause they must not shoot, so we need a comma after this Introductory Adverbial Clause. Don't confuse this with what we said earlier about commas surrounding a Non-Essential Phrase after a Coordinating Conjunction. An Adverbial Clause is not a phrase, so no comma goes before it, only after it.
INCORRECT  Bob and Pat are going gopher hunting, but,  if they spot George, they must not shoot.
One of the most frequent errors in comma usage is the placement of a comma after a coordinating conjunction when an Introductory Adverbial Clause follows it. Don't do it. It's wrong.

ALERT!! The following sentence is NOT an example of Rule #2. 
After grading her students' assignments, Winnie went for a walk.
Okay, you still need a comma here, but this is NOT an Introductory Adverbial Clause!!!!! If you drop the subordinate conjunction after, which begins the introduction, you DO NOT have an independent clause. Grading her students' assignments is NOT an independent clause. It cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. This is called an Introductory Phrase which we will study in the next lesson. Every term, most students attribute that comma in this sentence to Rule #2, and that is wrong, and I will mark it wrong on your homework. (left the instructor's comments in since it would be helpful to see what she is emphasizing)

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RULE 3:

Rule #3:    Coordinate Adjectives
Use commas to separate two or more Coordinate Adjectives that precede the noun they modify.

Coordinate Adjectives are adjectives with equal (co-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two or more adjectives are coordinate by asking the following questions:
Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with the conjunction and between them?
If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma.

Be careful here. If you place a coordinating conjunction like *and* or *or* between any of the adjectives, Rule #3 DOES NOT APPLY.

Examples of Coordinate Adjectives:

* Mr. Poe was a difficult, stubborn poet.
The poet was stubborn and difficult. These adjectives are Coordinate, equal in importance to poet, the noun they describe.

INCORRECT  Mr. Poe was a difficult, stubborn,  poet.
Never, never, ever separate the noun from its adjective!!

INCORRECT  Mr. Poe was a difficult,  and stubborn poet.
No, no, this is wrong. Since the coordinating conjunction and separates the adjectives difficult and stubborn, do NOT use a comma here.

The poet was difficult, opinionated, and stubborn.
This is not incorrect as far as comma placement is concerned. However, this is NOT an example of Rule #3. It is an example of Elements in a Series, which we will study next week. The adjectives do not precede the noun (poet) they modify, and the coordinating conjunction and has been injected into the list of adjectives, so the reference to coordinate adjectives is no longer relevant.

Bob has an easy, happy smile.
The adjectives are coordinate, equal in importance as they describe the noun smile. The smile was happy and easy.
     
The relentless, powerful, oppressive sun beat down on Pat's head.
The three adjectives are all coordinate. The sun was oppressive and relentless and powerful. The adjectives relentless and powerful are coordinate, so a comma goes between them. The adjectives powerful and oppressive are coordinate, so a comma goes between them.
   
The relentless, powerful, and oppressive sun beat down on Pat's head.
Commas are needed here, but not because of Rule #3. Rule #3 DOES NOT apply here because we used the word and to separate the third element is a series of three elements. The adjectives listed become Elements in a Series, a Rule we will study next week.

The relentless and powerful and oppressive sun beat down on Pat's head.
If you use and to separate EACH adjective, you don't use a comma between them.
Confused?  Don't worry. I promise that this will all become clear to you very soon.
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Here are rules 4,5,6, and 7:

Rule #4:    Non-Coordinate Adjectives
Do NOT use commas between Non-Coordinate Adjectives.

Non-Coordinate Adjectives are adjectives that are NOT equal in status in describing the noun. The adjective immediately next to the noun is superior to the adjective before it. It is so much a part of the noun which it describes that the Non-Coordinate Adjective and its noun are like one word, like a compound noun. Here are some examples of Non-Coordinate Adjectives and their nouns:
log cabin
German shepherd
magnifying glass
cell phone
adding machines
summer sun
jelly beans
rocking chair

If we were to put an adjective before these compound nouns, you would NOT put a comma between them because they wouldn't be equal in importance to the noun they modify.
white log cabin
old German shepherd
cracked magnifying glass
loud cell phone
huge adding machines
powerful summer sun
chocolate-covered jelly beans
sturdy rocking chair [not the motion of rocking but the type of chair]
old, blue, sturdy rocking chair [not the motion of rocking but the type of chair]
           
Ah, what happened here? Why the commas? Hmm... Let's see who is paying attention.
Go over to the forum and let's discuss this. It could mean extra credit for you.

Remember our little test with Coordinate Adjectives?
Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with the conjunction and between them?
If you answer NO to these questions, then the adjectives are NOT Coordinate and should NOT be separated by a comma.

Examples of Non-Coordinate Adjectives:

* Betty lived in a white log cabin.
White and log are Non-Coordinate Adjectives. The log cabin was white. The adjective log is so much a part of the noun cabin that it is superior to the adjective white and is, therefore, Non-Coordinate'not equal in importance. No comma should separate white and log. Also, these adjectives fail the test for Coordinate Adjectives. You can't say the cabin was log and white. That doesn't make sense. So they can't be coordinate.

The relentless, powerful summer sun beat down on Pat's head.
Here, you have two Coordinate Adjectives (relentless and powerful) and  Non-Coordinate Adjectives (powerful and summer). The sun was powerful and relentless, but you can't say the sun was summer and powerful'that sounds stupid. So summer is so much a part of the noun sun that it is not equal in importance to the adjective (powerful) next to it.  Summer sun is almost like one word. It is superior. So no comma goes between powerful and summer.

Winnie couldn't finish her work because her loud cell phone kept ringing.

Buster adores that stupid, old German shepherd next door.

The beautiful, intelligent WDC reviewer is a kind and encouraging and helpful member of the community.
Whoa, what happened here? Let's break it down. Beautiful and intelligent are Coordinate Adjectives, so a comma is needed between them. Intelligent and WDC are Non-Coordinate Adjective, so no comma goes between them.  The adjectives kind, encouraging, and helpful are EACH separated by the Coordinating Conjunction and, so no comma goes between them. Got it? 

Rule #5:  Non-Essential Elements
Use commas before and after Non-Essential (unnecessary) words, phrases, and clauses that are elements embedded in the sentence which interrupt the flow of the sentence but are not needed to clarify the meaning of the sentence.

Some elements of a sentence are non-essential and don't restrict the meaning of the sentence. That does not mean that Non-Essential Elements are bad things. They add much imagery, emotion, and characterization to your story. Non-Essential Elements are the salt and pepper of your sentences. These Non-Essential Elements can be words, phrases, or clauses, and comma placement around them is necessary. Many of these elements begin with relative pronouns like who, which, and that (That has its own rule). Some begin with participles (words ending in ing or ed). Some begin with prepositions like to, in, of, on, once, since, and many more. Some are infinitive phrases and begin with the infinitive to plus a verb like to be or to run or to study. Some are just names or adverbs. These Non-Essential Elements can be at the beginning, end, or in the middle of a sentence.

If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If not, it is non-essential.

Here is a trick I learned to help me remember this rule: If the modifying element is non-essential, and you don't need it to understand the meaning of the sentence, put hooks (commas) around the element because it can easily be removed.     See how simple that was?

Examples of Non-Essential Elements:

The average world temperature, surprisingly, has continued to rise.
The adverb surprisingly is a Non-Essential Word. You don't need the word surprisingly to understand the meaning of the sentence. You can easily remove it, so you need commas (hooks) surrounding it.
The average world temperature has continued to rise.
By the way, did you notice that the adjectives average and world are Non-Coordinating? 

* Pat, the leader of Showering Acts of Joy, writes poetry and short stories.
The leader of Showering Acts of Joy is a Non-Essential Phrase. You don't need to know that Pat is the leader of Showering Acts of Joy to understand that she writes poetry and short stories.  It is not Essential to know this, so commas need to surround this Non-Essential Element.
Pat writes poetry and short stories.

We hoped that decorating the top of Cindy's cupcake with a dead grasshopper would freak her out, but, to our surprise, she just popped the whole thing in her mouth.
Here, we have a compound sentence with a coordinating conjunction, so we need a comma before but. We also have a Non-Essential phrase in the middle of the sentence. To our surprise is a prepositional phrase, and it is not important to the meaning of the sentence, so commas need to surround it.

Your best friends, where are your buddies when you need them?
The Non-Essential Element in this sentence is called an Absolute Phrase which we will study in Lesson #3 where it will acquire its own Rule Number [Rule #16].

My favorite uncle, who is eighty years old, walks three miles every day.
I only have one favorite uncle. Therefore, it is not essential to know that he is the one who is eighty. You can easily omit the element and still understand the sentence.
My favorite uncle walks three miles every day.

George, armed and at attention, monitors the Comma Sense Class each term.
The element armed and at attention adds imagery and characterization to George the gopher, but this information is not vital to the rest of the sentence. This particular Non-Essential Element is a Participial Phrase in the middle of the sentence.
George monitors the Comma Sense Class each term.

Those basketball shoes, to be perfectly honest, do not complement the suit you are planning to wear to the interview.
Here, we have a Non-Essential Element which is an infinitive phrase. To be perfectly honest interrupts the sentence and can be easily removed. We will learn more about interrupters in Lesson #5.

Rule #6:  Essential Elements
Do NOT use commas to set off Essential Elements that are vital to the meaning of the sentence.

Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term (usually the noun immediately next to the modifying element).  No commas are used to surround them because they are a necessary part of the sentence. We wouldn't understand who or what the author is referring to if we were to omit these Essential Elements. Many of these elements begin with relative pronouns like who, which, and that (That has its own rule). Some begin with participles (words ending in ing or ed). Some begin with prepositions like to, in, of, on, except for, once, since, while, and many more. Prepositional phrases are almost always essential. Some are infinitive phrases and begin with the infinitive to plus a verb like to be or to run or to study. Some are just names or adverbs.

If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential.

Examples of Essential Elements:

The person checking tickets at the counter asked for a form of identification.
Checking tickets at the counter is an Essential Phrase, so no commas are used here.  You need to know the person asking for a form is the one checking tickets.  If you left out the essential phrase, the reader would be lost.
The person asked for a form. The reader is left with the question: What person?

The uncle who is eighty years old walks three miles every day.
I have four uncles.  It is essential to know which uncle we are referring to, so we are talking about the one who is eighty, and you wouldn't use commas because the element is essential. Don't be confused into thinking that it is essential to know that an eighty-year-old can, amazingly, walk three miles. The essentiality factor of the element is based on the modified term the uncle which is positioned immediately next to the element who is eighty years old. If you left out the element, the sentence would be confusing.
The uncle walks three miles every day. Which uncle are we talking about here? 

* The woman who interviewed you is my sister.
Who interviewed you is an Essential Phrase and no commas should surround it. The reader needs to know which woman is your sister.
The woman is my sister. Which woman is your sister?

The sixth-century philosopher Boethius was arrested, tortured, and bludgeoned to death.
Boethius is an Essential Word.  We need to know which 6th century philosopher the writer is referring to.
The sixth-century philosopher was arrested, tortured, and bludgeoned to death. We need a name here. Which philosopher?

Winnie went to the supply room to get a new ruler.
Here, we have an Essential Element which is an infinitive phrase. It is essential because it finishes the sentence by explaining why she went to the supply room. No comma should precede it.

Buster hid under the bed when he heard the thunder.
Under the bed is a prepositional phrase. It is essential to know where Buster hid, so no commas are used. Prepositional phrases are almost always essential elements.

Winnie liked the purple hat except for the red feather on the top.
Except for the red feather and on the top are prepositional phrases. It is essential to know that Winnie had an exception to liking the hat and that it was the particular red feather on the top. Prepositional phrases are almost always essential.

Rule #7:  Essential That Clauses 
Do NOT use commas to set off Essential That Clauses.

That Clauses are dependent clauses beginning with the relative pronoun that. They are also called Relative Clauses. That Clauses always immediately follow the noun or verb they are modifying and are always Essential. No comma is used to separate an Essential That Clause from the rest of the sentence.
Attention!! This also applies if the word that is implied.

Examples of That Clauses:

* The book that I borrowed from Pat is excellent.
That I borrowed from Pat is an Essential That Clause. Don't cut it off from the rest of the sentence with commas.

The book I borrowed from Pat is excellent.
The word that is not visible, but it is implied, so no commas should surround the Essential That Clause. [That] I borrowed from Pat is an Essential That Clause.

The apples that fell off the tree  that was growing by the side of the road hit Bob in the arm that held the gun.
I know, I know, this sentence is terribly constructed. But I wanted to show you that you can have multiple Essential That Clauses in one sentence.

Don't make the assumption that just because the word THAT is in a sentence, it automatically introduces an Essential That Clause. Besides acting as a relative pronoun introducing a relative clause such as what we are learning about here in Rule #7, the word that can also act as many other parts of speech.
Here is a link explaining the many uses of the word that.
http://www2.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/grammar/lec … /that.html

Examples of That Acting as Different Parts of Speech:

That is not a nice cat.
Here, that is a pronoun and the subject of this sentence.

That cat just clawed my arm to shreds.
Here, that is an adjective modifying cat.

I need to bandage my arm so that it stops bleeding.
Here, that, used with so, is a subordinating conjunction. [1xa]

I didn't know that that cat was that vicious.
The first that introduces an Essential That Clause. The second that is an adjective modifying cat. The third that is used as an adverb modifying vicious.
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TO COMMA,,,,,,OR NOT TO COMMA

Commas help your reader figure out which words go together in a sentence and which parts of your sentences are most important. Using commas incorrectly may confuse the reader, signal ignorance of writing rules, or indicate carelessness. Although using commas correctly may seem mysterious, it can be easy if you follow a few guidelines.

Beware of these popular myths regarding comma usage:

MYTH: Long sentences need a comma.
A really long sentence like the one I'm writing here may be perfectly correct without commas because the length of a sentence does not determine whether you need a comma.

MYTH: You should add a comma wherever you pause.
Where you pause or breathe in a sentence does not reliably indicate where a comma belongs. Different readers pause or breathe in different places.

MYTH: Commas are so mysterious that it's impossible to figure out where they belong!
Some rules are flexible, but most of the time, commas belong in very predictable places.
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Rule #8: Elements In A Series

Use a comma to separate three or more Elements In A Series.

A series is a list which includes three or more items of the same parallel structure of words, phrases, or clauses with a single conjunction joining the last element. Writers frequently err in their attempts to produce parallel structure when producing elements in a series. The items must all be equal in structure: all verbs, all verbs plus a noun, all nouns, all phrases, or all clauses. Here is an excellent link explaining how to properly construct elements in a series:
http://www.dailywritingtips.com/5-paral … ine-lists/

You may have learned that the comma before the and in the last element is unnecessary, which is fine if you're in control of things. However, there are situations in which, if you don't use this comma, especially when the list is complex or lengthy, the last two items in the list will try to glom together like macaroni and cheese. Using a comma between all the items in a series, including the last two, avoids this problem. This last comma—the one between the word and and the preceding word—is often called the serial comma or the Oxford comma. In newspaper writing, incidentally, you will seldom find a serial comma, but that is not necessarily a sign that it should be omitted. For the sake of consistency, in this Class, I'll ask you to always use a comma before the final conjunction in a list of three or more elements.

Examples of Elements in a Series:

My estate is to be split among McGregor, Lucy, Pancho, and Buster.
Omitting the comma after Pancho would indicate that Pancho and Buster would have to split one-third of the estate. See why that last comma is important?

The Comma Sense Class is an enlightening course, contains brilliant information, and has a unique, amusing character.
Here we have three elements describing the Comma Sense Class. Each element contains a verb and an object of that verb. So it is correct in parallel structure. We also have two Coordinate Adjectives describing the noun character in the third element. The comma between unique and amusing is because of Rule #3, not because of Rule #8.

The Presidential Candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.

The commas were carefully placed, the rules were double checked, and the assignment was posted in the forum.
All three elements in this series are independent clauses, but because they are closely related and are of the same type of clauses, and the last element is joined by a conjunction, they are considered elements in a series and not separate sentences.

The prosecutor argued that Winnie was on-line at the time of the crime, had a strong revenge motive against The Writer's Cramp Judge, and had illegal access to the Gift Points Bank.

*Bob listens to his teachers without yawning, studies his lessons, and submits his assignments on time.

INCORRECT   You can use your bank account, debit, or credit cards.
This is NOT an example of elements in a series. The sentence is grammatically incorrect. This list refers to two types of financial resources: a bank account and a card (two types of which are mentioned). The sentence structure mistakenly suggests that the list consists of three elements, rather than two.
You can use your bank account or a debit or credit card.
There are actually only two elements here, so this is not an example of Rule #8.

INCORRECT   Winnie was worried her lessons weren't detailed enough, confusing, and they had errors.
This is NOT an example of elements in a series. The sentence is grammatically incorrect. The items are not of the same parallel structure of words, phrases, or clauses. The first element is a phrase. The second is just one word. The third element is a clause.
Winnie was worried her lessons weren't detailed enough, were confusing, and had errors.
Now you have three element, all of which contain a verb phrase. They are all of the same parallel structure.

Exception #8x: Conjunctions Separating EACH Element
When a coordinating conjunction like and is used to separate each element in a series, no comma is used before the conjunctions unless the elements are clauses in which case Rule #1 would apply.

Examples of Conjunctions Separating Each Element:

Winnie is proud of her students because they are enthusiastic and smart and humorous.
No commas are used between the elements because and separates each element.

Pat can't remember where she put her keys or where she parked her car or if she even drove her car to the mall.

Betty received a perfect score for her grammar and style, and comma-usage.
Ah, what happened here? Sometimes a comma is used to separate only two elements in a series where confusion would arise without the comma. Here we only have two elements in a series, but we need a comma because the first element contains two items. Betty was graded on grammar and style (that's one category), and comma-usage (that's one category). Without the comma between style and and, the reader would think there were three separate grading categories.

Proper comma placement is difficult to learn, and there are many rules and exceptions to study, and you may be tempted to run away and hide, but you don't have to be afraid.
Uh oh, what happened here? There are commas placed before the coordinating conjunctions which separate each element. Well, that's because these are not Elements in a Series. They are independent clauses, and a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunctions because Rule #1 applies.

Rule #9: Introductory Phrases

Use a comma after an Introductory Phrase.

Much like Rule #2 (Introductory Adverbial Clauses) in Lesson #1, Introductory Phrases also set the stage for the main action of the sentence, and they need a comma after them, but they are not Independent Clauses, and they do not necessarily begin with a Subordinate Conjunction as does the Introductory Adverbial Clause. Like an Introductory Adverbial Clause, an Introductory Phrase does not necessarily begin a sentence. It introduces an independent clause, so it can appear in the middle of a sentence, and a comma should follow it. But unlike an Introductory Adverbial Clause, when you drop the beginning word of an Introductory Phrase, you do not have an independent clause, a complete sentence which can stand alone.

The difference between phrases and clauses is phrases don't have both a subject and a verb like a clause does. Phrases cannot stand alone as a separate sentence. Common Introductory Phrases include Prepositional Phrases, Appositive Phrases, Participial Phrases, Adverbial Phrases, Infinitive Phrases, Noun Phrases, and Absolute Phrases. As we proceed deeper into the subsequent Lessons, many of these specific types of phrases will claim their own unique Rule Number.

Examples of Introductory Phrases:

Although tired and hungry, Winnie continued to grade her students' papers.
Although tired and hungry is NOT an Introductory Adverbial Clause. If you drop the subordinating conjunction although which begins the phrase, you are left with tired and hungry which is not an independent clause. It can't stand alone as a separate sentence. It is a phrase.

Meowing insistently, Lucy finally got her ears scratched.

Proper comma placement can be confusing, but by the end of this course, you will all be experts.
There is an Introductory Phrase in the middle of this sentence, and a comma needs to follow it.

As a popular and well respected member of Writing.com, Lyle will be missed.

The wind blowing violently, the commas began to seek shelter.
This Introductory Phrase is called an Absolute Phrase which we will learn about in Lesson #3.

Speaking of teaching this comma class, when do I get a raise?

After hearing that there would be no increase in Social Security Benefits this year, Winnie will have to sell a kidney to pay her property taxes.

Exception #9x: Short Introductory Prepositional Phrases
No comma is necessary if the Introductory Phrase is a Prepositional Phrase (starting with a preposition like after, besides, in, for, of, on, since, until, upon, with, and many more), and the Prepositional Phrase is quite short (five or less words), and the meaning is clear without the comma. It's not wrong to use a comma after these short Prepositional Phrases, but it is not necessary. This exception ONLY applies to Introductory Prepositional Phrases. For more information on Prepositions, go to:
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/preposition.htm

Examples of Short Introductory Prepositional Phrases:

*Once upon a time there was a lonely comma in a dark forest.
Just take note that the word once is not a preposition. It is an adverb. But upon is a preposition. Joined together, they form what's called an adverbial prepositional phrase, and since the introductory phrase is short, no comma is necessary.

After the storm Buster tracked mud into the house.

Besides having insomnia Winnie has nightmares about commas.

With clouds approaching, Pancho must run for cover.
Notice that comma after the Short Introductory Prepositional Phrase? Well, you need to remember the fact that only if the meaning of the sentence is clear, are you allowed to omit the comma after a Short Introductory Prepositional Phrase. If the comma was left out in this sentence, it would confuse the reader.

A sentence may contain several Introductory Adverbial Clauses (Rule #2) and Introductory Phrases (Rule #9). Take a look at this complex sentence:
By the end of the Comma Sense Class[9], after the students have learned all thirty rules[2], as they begin to utilize their new-found knowledge of proper comma-placement[2], feeling confident and courageous[9], the Comma Sense students declare Winnie the Comma Queen of the Universe.

Rule #10: Ending Participial Phrases
Do NOT use a comma before an Ending Participial Phrase that modifies the word it immediately follows.

Participial Phrases begin with a verbal called a participle. These are words usually ending in ing or ed—but not always. When a Participial Phrase begins a sentence, it follows Rule #9 and a comma follows it. When a Participial Phrase ends a sentence, no comma is used before it IF THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWS THE WORD OR CLAUSE IT MODIFIES.

Here is a great link explaining Participles and Participial Phrases and their commas:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/627/02/

Examples of Ending Participial Phrases Immediately Next To the Word They Modify:

The local residents often saw Danny happily wandering through Barnes and Noble.
The Ending Participial Phrase modifies Danny, not the residents. Danny is doing the happy wandering. No comma is used. Notice the adverb happily precedes the Ending Participial Phrase. The adverb is part of the phrase.

Tom nervously watched the woman dressed in black.
The Ending Participial Phrase modifies the woman, not Tom. The woman is dressed in black. No comma is used.

Cindy saw the monkey swinging from the trees.
The Ending Participial Phrase modifies the monkey, not Cindy. The monkey is swinging. No comma is used.

Bob hit the man waving a gun.
The Ending Participial Phrase modifies the man, not Bob. The man is doing the waving. No comma is used.

Some Ending Participial Phrases modify a whole clause. No comma is used in this situation.
*An interesting book was once written explaining the natural habitat of the endangered Comma.
The Ending Participial Phrase modifies the whole clause before it. The once written book is doing the explaining. No comma is used.

Exception #10x: Ending Participial Phrases NOT Immediately Next To the Word They Modify
Yes, there is an exception here. It is always better for clarity to put the Ending Participial Phrase right next to the word it modifies. This eliminates the possibility of creating the dreaded Dangling Participial Phrase. But it is sometimes awkward to construct such a sentence. Soooo if the Ending Participial Phrase modifies an EARLIER WORD IN THE SENTENCE, a comma MUST be used.

Examples of Ending Participial Phrases Not Immediately Next To the Word They Modify:

adverb happily precedes the Ending Participial Phrase. The adverb is part of the phrase, so the comma is placed before the adverb.

Tom nervously watched the woman, dressed in black.
The Ending Participial Phrase modifies Tom, a noun earlier in the sentence. Tom is dressed in black. A comma must be used.

Cindy saw the monkey, swinging from the trees.
The Ending Participial Phrase modifies Cindy, not the monkey. Cindy is swinging from the trees. A comma must be used.

Bob hit the man, waving a gun.
The Ending Participial Phrase modifies Bob, not the man. Bob is waving the gun. A comma must be used.

Can you see how a comma misplaced in these sentences will completely alter the meaning for the reader? This is where the power of the author is displayed with a simple comma or omission of a comma.

If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, then Rules #5 or #6 apply, and it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence—or there should be no commas if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence.

Examples of Participial Phrases in the Middle of a Sentence:

Winnie, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.
The participial phrase in the middle of the sentence is non-essential, so commas are needed. Rule #5 applies here.

The Jerusalem Temple, destroyed in 70 A.D., was never rebuilt.
The participial phrase in the middle of the sentence is non-essential. We know which temple is being referred to. Commas are needed to surround the non-essential phrase. Rule #5 applies here.

The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.
The participial phrase in the middle of the sentence is essential. We need to know which student is being referred to. So no commas should surround the essential phrase. Rule #6 applies here.

The man wearing the soldier's uniform is my brother.
The participial phrase is essential in knowing which man is my brother, so no commas are used. Rule #6 applies here.

Rule #11: Introductory Transitional Words
Use a comma after Introductory Transitional Words that create continuity from one sentence to the next.

To be classified as an Introductory Transitional Word or Words, the first word or words of the sentence MUST be closely tied to the previous sentence!!!
Some Introductory Transitional Words are as follows:
However                    In addition
Still                           By the way
Furthermore                For example
Meanwhile                  In the meantime
For many, many more examples, go to
https://www.msu.edu/~jdowell/135/transw.html
and
http://www.ehow.com/list_7219610_list-t … iting.html

Be careful with the word although. Even though although may seem to have the same general sense as an Introductory Transitional Word, it is a subordinating conjunction and can't be used to transition from a prior sentence. When although begins a sentence, it is introducing a phrase (Rule #9) or a clause (Rule #2). When although introduces an ending adverbial clause, the comma is optional before it, depending on emphasis, but no comma goes after it (Exception #1xb).
Although tired and hungry, [9] Winnie continued to grade her students' papers.
Although we are only on Lesson #2, [2] we have learned a lot.
He does well in English [1xb] although he prefers math to English.
He does well in English, [1xb] although he prefers math to English.[comma expresses emphasis]

INCORRECT  Although, lunch is his favorite class.
Although is not an Introductory Transitional Word. This is considered a sentence fragment. Although and a clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.
Here is an excellent link explaining the word although and comma placement with although.
http://www.grammarmudge.cityslide.com/a … /36239.htm

Examples of Introductory Transitional Words:

*The severe drought in Texas requires citizens to use more water. Consequently, the greedy water company raised their rates.
In the second sentence, consequently is an Introductory Transitional Word. It creates continuity from the first sentence. Therefore, a comma must follow it.

I can't afford to water my lawn. Therefore, the Homeowners Association fined me for having dead grass.

Buster didn't take his arthritis medicine. As a result, his hind legs hurt.
In the second sentence, as a result are Introductory Transitional Words which transition the first sentence to the second, and a comma is needed after it.

She loved to shop, although she had no money.
She loved to shop although she had no money.
Although is a subordinating conjunction and follows Exception #1xb. A comma goes before it only when expressing emphasis.
INCORRECT  She loved to shop. Although, she had no money.
Although and a clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It is not an Introductory Transitional Word.

Exception #11x: Coordinating Conjunctions Used as Introductory Transitional Words
Be careful here. Introductory Transitional Words are usually adverbs. But it is becoming more common and acceptable to start sentences with coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS). If you start a transitional sentence with a Coordinating Conjunction like and, but, yet, or, nor, for, and so, you DO NOT USE A COMMA after the conjunction unless a non-essential element follows it. Also, when the Conjunctive Adverb then is used as an Introductory Transitional Word, no comma is used. We will learn more about the word then in Lesson #3.

Examples of Coordinating Conjunctions Used as Introductory Transitional Words:

Pancho is a lively rat terrier who likes to jump on my furniture. But he howls when he can't get down.
But is a Coordinating Conjunction being used in the second sentence as an Introductory Transitional Word. So no comma follows it.

Buster didn't take his arthritis medicine. So his hind legs hurt.
So is a Coordinating Conjunction being used in the second sentence as an Introductory Transitional Word. So no comma follows it.

McGregor clawed Winnie's new couch to pieces. Then he took a long nap.
When the Conjunctive Adverb then is used as an Introductory Transitional Word, no comma is used.

We hoped that decorating the top of Cindy's cupcake with a dead grasshopper would freak her out. But, to our surprise, she just popped the whole thing in her mouth.
In the second sentence, but is a Coordinating Conjunction used as an Introductory Transitional Word. The comma after it is because the phrase to our surprise is a Non-Essential Element and needs to be surrounded by commas. The commas are there because of Rule #5, not because of Rule #11. Are you beginning to see how all of this stuff works together from one lesson to another?  Sure, you are.

Rule #12: Interjections
Use commas to set off Interjections.

Interjections are words or phrases used to exclaim or protest. They sometimes stand by themselves, but they are often contained within the sentence, usually at the beginning. They express a sentiment such as surprise, anger, disgust, sarcasm, joy, excitement, or enthusiasm. Much profanity (expletives) takes the form of interjections. Interjections are primarily utilized in dialogue within a story, displaying verbal expression and characterization. For a list of Interjections, go to:
http://www.examples-help.org.uk/parts-o … ctions.htm

Examples of Interjections:

Oh, I didn't know a comma went there.

Duh, you can't put that comma there.

Good grief! Didn't I tell you not to put a comma there?
Interjections can stand alone as a complete sentence.

*Eureka, you decided to put a comma there.

No, no, you can't put a comma there!
When an interjection is repeated, a comma should separate them.

So, you decided to put a comma there?
There IS a comma after so here because so is used in this sentence as an Interjection, not as an Introductory Transitional Word. It does not create a transition from a previous sentence. Nor is it considered a Coordinating Conjunction here, for it is not joining a phrase or a clause. In this sentence, so is simply an expression of sarcasm. Do you see how one word, like so, can be different parts of speech? How you use the word in a sentence determines whether it is a conjunction or an introductory transitional word or an interjection.

Alas, I forgot to put a comma there.

So here is a sample of Ian McDonald's novel, Empress of the Sun. I haven't read it, or, any of his books yet, but we can tell it's science fiction for the genre and the story line involves a space ship. The following sample, in brackets, is from page 1 -

[The bridge of the airship Everness shrieked with alarms. Yellow lights flashed. Horns blared. Balls rang, klaxons shrieked. Impact warning, impact warning, thundered a mechanical voice. Everett’s vision cleared at the same instant as that of the rest of the crew.]

Do you see what he did there? Many writers will have stopped with "The bridge of the airship Everness shrieked with alarms." Ian elevates the description to the next step by following this with short action descriptives to place, you the reader, on that ship in your mind's eye. He's not called the master of milieu for nothing

I do believe his editor or proofreader missed a comma as the ship's name should be set off with commas. It's not going to be as big a deal to him as it would be to a self-published author. What I mean by that is I've heard from reliable sources that the star rated Amazon reviewers can do great harm to the sales of your novel, if they post comments that it's filled with grammar errors or lack of correct punctuation. Ian has a publisher so it's likely not that big of a deal for him.

It's also important to note what the author doesn't do, as much as what they do. We see Ian introduced in that line the "Everness" but he doesn't drop in a section of back story on what it is, how it fits in the universe, etc. Had he done so, we would call that an "info dump" and it would kind of have the same effect as riding a ride at Disneyland where your ride is suddenly halted as Donald Duck, in that annoying duck voice of his, explains what the ride is supposed to mean to you before he finally releases you to continue the ride to the end.

This is Ian's opening line for the novel, and, again, its more than a generalized description where he is pulling in the reader for a more detailed mental image -

[A dot of brilliant light. In an instant the dot exploded into a disc. The disc of light turned to a circle of blackness: a night sky. Out of the perfect circle of night sky came the airship, slow, huge, magnificent. Impeller engines hummed. The Heisenberg Gate flickered and closed behind it.]

As before, Ian doesn't bother to explain right away what the "Heisenberg Gate" is and doesn't try to somehow extract an explanation from the Heisenberg uncertainty principle from Quantum Physics. (So how many reviewers do you think on TNBW would've knocked him for not explaining what this is to the reader in the same chapter? Should he have worked in a brief mention in the same chapter or not?) I think he just uses it because it gives the illusion of having a known scientific basis rather than say calling it something more made up. Actually, from what I looked ahead on, he never fully explains it and references it here and there as technology to jump to other worlds. A third of the way through is a reference to who introduced the HG tech. This goes back to that old argument you will sometimes see where it's argued this isn't science fiction but fantasy. Proponents of this argument say it's only science fiction if you can explain in detail with known working scientific principles how a thing is and works. I personally don't agree with that since science progresses and a century from now will have explanations that today's scientists will likely be unaware of. We don't toss H.G. Wells to the wind because he couldn't explain using his day's known science how exactly a time machine would work, do we? But a few thousand years or so from now they may, in fact, be able to detail precisely how time travel would work.